THE FOUR LARGE CARNIVORES OF EUROPE
by Marianne Bakken Tollefsen (veterinary student)
WHY ARE THEY THREATENED? HOW AND WHY ARE THEY CONSERVED?
To answer these questions it is necessary to have some understanding of these animals – their history and place in the biological diversity. Lets follow the footsteps of brown bear, wolverine, wolf and lynx to see where and how they live.
BROWN BEAR (URSUS ARCTOS)
Distribution: Europe, Asia and North America. Originally found in all of Europe, but more or less extinct in west and south Europe. To day the European population consist of 50 000 bears.
Habitats: Covers an area of 2,5 mill km2, includes north artic tundra, subalpine mountains, but mostly in forest.
Food: Omnivorous animals. Feed on vegetation, invertebrates, fish and ungulates. They have high food consumption in late summer and autumn to achieve an adipose layer. Necessary for nutrition during hibernation, which lasts for 5-7 months in the wintertime.
Behaviour: Bears are no threats to humans unless in self-defence or when provoked. Bears can cause great damage to livestock. Low reproduction rate, due to late sexual maturity. Females only give birth to an average of 2 puppies every 3rd years. Can live up to the age of 30, but most common between 20-25 years.
Bears are not territorial animals; their home range may overlap and varies with food recourses and population density. They are space-needing animals and avoid each other except during mating season. Density depends on food resources, population growth and reproduction.
Threats: Human expansion and activity destroys original habitats, by deforestation, agriculture and hunting. Rod and railway constructions interfere with habitats and are responsible for many killings every year. Poaching is a problem especially in east Europe, where it is lucrative for supply the demand of the Asian marked.
Conservation: Use of livestock guarding techniques, public education of behaviour and ecology, international co-operation to prevent poaching.
The brown bear is listed as II in CITES and in The Bern convention.
WOLVERINE (GULO GULO)
Distribution: Originally
found in the northern world, including whole of Scandinavia and northern part of east Europe.
Disappeared from the southern areas during the 19th century
due to human activity. To day found only in Scandinavia and some parts of
Habitats: Forest and tundra, but mostly alpine areas.
Food: Feed on scavenges abandoned by predators, accidents and disease. Prey on hares, rodents and occasionally larger ungulates, also on livestock: sheep, goat and semi-domesticated reindeer. Collect and store large amount of meat for later consumption.
Behaviour: Wolverine is a fairly unknown species, only in the last decade has it been done extensive documentation of the species.
They are mostly nocturnal animals. Live solitary, mating season is the only time male and female associate. Territorial animals, especially females have their own exclusive territories. Their home range is large and may overlap. Give birth every 2nd year. Average of a litter is 3 cubs. Their live span is about 8-10 years.
Wolverine is no threat to humans, but can behave aggressive when protecting their cubs.
Damage to livestock is mainly a problem in northern Scandinavia, where the wolverines prey on semi-domesticated reindeer, and in areas
of
Threats to wolverines are due to the small distribution
and thereby little genetic variation. Habitat loss or any other human disturbance
is not of concern in the case of this species; the challenge lays in the coexistence
with domesticated animals. In
Conservation: Continuous research of the species behaviour, population dynamics and habitats. More knowledge will help to find the best solutions and alternative methods to reduce loss in livestock and thereby also reduce conflicts concerning legal and illegal hunting.
The wolverine is listed as II in CITES and in The Bern convention. Status: Vulnerable.
WOLF (CANIS LUPUS)
Distribution: Northern hemisphere in Europe, Asia and North America. Originally found in all of Europe through out the 18th century, but extinct in central and north Europe after 2ww. At its smallest in the 60s, later natural recovering in these areas, but still uncertain.
Habitats: No particular, but mostly in forest where not disturbed by humans (although this is not their original habitat). Often follow its pray habitat.
Food: Feed on invertebrates and ungulates, and require about 3-5 kg of meat a day, but can fast for periods. Do also consume vegetables.
Behaviour: Live in pack constituted of a family with a strict internal hierarchy. The pack is important for co-operate in hunting and defence. It consists of 2-7 animals. Only the male and female with highest dominance (alpha couple) reproduce. That means; one litter per pack. A litter is usually 4-7 puppies, but 50% die within their first year. Reproduction depends on density and food recourses. Young animals leave their pack to search for a mate and their own territory, or they emigrate to a different pack. In this way genetic exchange is ensured. Live span is 10-13 years of age.
Wolves are territorial animals and marks and defend their area. Territory size depends on density, food resources and human interference but are usually 100-800km2. Density in Europe is approximated to 1-3 individuals per 100km2.
Wolves are usually no threat to humans, but some young, less experienced animals can be less shy. There have been examples of wounded individuals and wolves born in captivity and later escaped or released into the wild, which have shown aggressive behaviour towards humans. Still they are not considered a safety risk to humans. Wolf causes great damage to livestock, especially to sheep and goat.
Threats: There is a serious problem and conflicts causing issue between wild life conservation and agriculture industry due to livestock loss. It has led to strict control and extermination of wolves. Several small populations are threatened by poaching.
Conservation: Habitat restoration in key areas, which will allow wolves to live undisturbed in their original and proper territory. Spread information and education to prevent conflicts of interests. Engage preventive work to limit the damage to livestock.
The wolf is listed as II in CITES and The Bern convention. Status: Vulnerable.
EURASIAN LYNX (LYNX LYNX)
Distribution: Originally in whole Europe and central Asia. Then exterminated in west Europe and greatly reduced in central Europe. It was at its smallest in the 50s due to human activity. Later there have been released lynx in several parts of Europe to preserve the species in its original areas. Population in Europe to day is approximated 7000 animals.
Habitat: Mostly in forests, also found in semi deserts, northern tundra and mountains.
Food: Feed on small ungulates, birds, hare, rodents and occasionally large ungulates. Several places lynx also feed on livestock.
Behaviour: Territorial animals with territories between 100-3000 km2, size differs with habitat and food resources. Home range of males and females usually overlap each other; otherwise the lynx live solitary except in mating season. Litters of usually 2-3 kittens, about 50% do not survive the first years. Live to the age of 10-12 years, but can reach an age of 17.
Lynx are no threat to humans. Only a few cases are known where lynx have attached humans, these have been wounded or captured individuals. Lynx are responsible for the majority of livestock loss to carnivores, especially in Scandinavia.
Threats: The threat to the lynx population is as for the other carnivores, loss of habitats and thereby loss of preys due to human activity, legal and illegal hunting. Concern particularly the areas where the species were reintroduced after extinction and not yet have reached a carrying level.
Conservation: More knowledge of population dynamics to make reasonable decisions concerning hunting. As well as more long term solutions for preventing livestock loss. Preservation of habitats are needed to ensure enough and varied prey species for the lynx.
The lynx is listed as II in CITES. Status: Low risk.
Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) is a separate lynx species only found in parts of
The Iberian lynx is listed as I in CITES. Status: Critically endangered
CONFLICT ISSUES AND CONSERVATION
Why is it important to preserve this species?? They contribute to the balance in wildlife by a natural carnivore - prey relationship. They are part of the food chain, which maintain quantity and quality of prey population by selective hunting. Predation keeps the prey population within the carrying capacity of its environment. And by selecting the weak, sick, old or cubs it gives the prey species genetic advantages for further evolution.
These species have no natural enemies – their threat of extinction comes from human activity only. Still after international agreement to conserve the biological diversity they remain endangered. Why is this?? As described above this species are space-needing animals. Their territory and habitats are large due to their food resource and prey variability. In many cases these animals are suppressed from their natural environment because of human expansion and as mentioned deforestation, agriculture, and several places habitats are disturbed by rod and railway constructions. In several countries there are established key areas to preserve the species in their right habitats in an undisturbed environment.
Hunting
of carnivores - legal and illegal is another issue; caused by the conflict
between farmers (livestock holders) and the preservation of wildlife.
Carnivores are responsible for great loss of livestock. Farmers in several
places have therefore a resistance towards conservation of these animals.
Farmers, hunters and interest organizations press for hunting rights
and larger quota for carnivores. These can be unfaultable to the preservation
work because these groups have political influence when decisions of
hunting are made. This is known to happen in Norway , where the
government, regardless the advice of ecological experts, defined population
size larger than what is reality; this leads to excessive hunting of
endangered species. In many countries the government gives compensation
to farmers for loss of livestock to carnivores. Compensation of financial
loss seems to be only a short-term solution, in the long run there must
be agreed up on alternative methods to minimalize loss of lives. The
problem of co-existence of carnivores and domesticated animals occurred
when humans changed from hunters to farmers. In generations
of domestic breeding natural genetics have been lost in favour to human
beneficial qualities. This influence behaviour as well as physics,
natural instinct is weakened and made domestic animals more vulnerable
to predators – yet a human created problem due to economic benefit.
Also a familiar problem in Norway and other
western countries is the lack of traditional guarding of sheep and goats.
In some countries use of guarding dogs, donkeys
even lamas are proved to be a good investment.
Poaching is a serious problem for small populations. Carnivores are hunted for their fur, claws and even for organs. (Bill from gallbladder of bears is used in medicine in some Asian countries). International cooperation and legal actions are needed to prevent poaching. Continuous research to document population dynamic, behaviour and use of habitats is necessary to obtain knowledge and use this to ensure vice decisions concerning wildlife conservation - based on facts not opinions of minor interest organizations. Information and education to the public, especially in areas of carnivores, can prevent that ignorance lead to unreasonable judgement. It all comes down to a matter of attitude to preserve our biological diversity for the future. Humans have the privilege to benefit of nature; thereby we should consider it as our duty to preserve it for future generations.
LINKS AND REFERENCES
Endangered species and conservation
Bern Convention: http://www.coe.int/t/e/Cultural_Co-operation/Environment/
CITES: http://www.cites.org/
Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe (LCIE): http://www.large-carnivores-lcie.org/
Animal Diversity Web: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html
BBC – Science & Nature: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/
Lioncrusher`s Domain – Information on wild carnivores: http://www.lioncrusher.com/index.asp
WWF-UK: Endangered species: http://www.wwf.org.uk/core/wildlife/endangeredspecies.asp
Norwegian Carnivore & Raptor Society: http://www.fvr.no/eng-index.html
The Norwegian Zoological Society: http://www.zoologi.no/english/index.htm
Directorate for nature management in
State of Environment in
WWF-Norge – Norwegian: http://www.wwf.no/core/truede_arter/index.asp
Nation.no – Norwegian: http://www.nationen.no/nyheter/rovdyr/
Bear
Brown Bear Resources: http://www.brownbear.org/
IBA International Association for Bear Research and Management: http://www.bearbiology.com/
The Bear Den – All About Bears: http://www.bearden.org/
Wolverine
The Wolverine Foundation: http://www.wolverinefoundation.org/
Biogeography of wolverine: http://bss.sfsu.edu/geog/bholzman/courses/Fall00Projects/wolverine.html
Wolverine Biology – Norwegian: http://www.noa.no/Saker/Rovdyr/jerv.htm
Wolf
Wolf Country, information and education site about wolves: http://www.wolfcountry.net/
Wolf Recovery Foundation Den Site: http://www.forwolves.org/
Alpha-association: http://www.alpha-gruppen.com/
The Wolf – News and Information - Norwegian: http://home.online.no/~sa002/ulven/
Common action for Wolf – Norwegian: http://ulv.rovik.org/
Wolf.no: http://www.ulv.no/
Lynx
World Lynx Home Page: http://lynx.uio.no/jon/lynx/lynxhome.htm
Eurasian Lynx: Wild Cats: http://lynx.uio.no/jon/lynx/eulynx1.htm
Eurasian Lynx: http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/agarman/eurolynx.htm